PFAS: Knowing the Basics

PFAS, or per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, are a class of long lasting chemicals known as “forever chemicals” because they do not break down in the environment. They move through air, soil and water making them widespread global pollutants.

These chemicals are used in hundreds of products including firefighting foam, cosmetics, textiles, cookware, refrigerators, heat pumps, cars, and plastic packaging. They are also used in certain industrial processes including semiconductor and electronics manufacturing.

As more PFAS contamination is uncovered, cleanup costs are skyrocketing. EPA and state analyses show cleanup costs will be in the tens of billions and without strong polluter-pay policies, these costs fall on families, local water systems, and taxpayers.

Learn more about PFAS, how we are exposed here.

PFAS are extremely persistent in the environment, and many build up in people and wildlife. They can migrate out of consumer products into household dust and air, are released by industries, and contaminate drinking water and food. Nearly all U.S. residents have PFAS in their bodies, with biomonitoring studies finding PFAS in blood, breast milk, umbilical cord blood, amniotic fluid and placental tissues.

A rapidly growing body of independent scientific research links PFAS exposure to a wide range of health problems including:

• Immune system harm: Multiple studies show that PFAS suppress immune function, reduce vaccine response in children, and increase respiratory infections.
• Cancer: Numerous studies demonstrate that exposure to PFAS increases risk of certain cancers, and the most well studied PFAS have been listed as probable carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer.
• Cholesterol: PFAS exposure is consistently associated with high cholesterol levels.
• Thyroid disruption: PFAS has been linked to thyroid dysfunction, increasing the risk of hyperthyroidism and other disorders.
• Liver toxicity: PFAS exposure is linked to disruption of liver function in both adults and children.

Reproductive and developmental harm: PFAS exposure is linked to pregnancy-induced hypertension and reduced birth weight. PFAS has also been detected in testicular tissue and is linked to lower sperm counts.

PFAS has contaminated farmland in several ways:

• Spreading of sludge. Most states allow for biosolids or sludge to be spread on farmland, yet testing has found that sludge can contain high levels of PFAS. Several farms across the country have been impacted, and some have even been forced shut down. Maine has been a leader on this issue by banning the spreading of biosolids on farmland and creating a $50 million fund to aid farmers.
• PFAS-containing pesticides. Many pesticides contain PFAS, either as an active ingredient or as an inactive or “inert” ingredient. It is often added to help the pesticide spread more easily and stick to crops for longer. As a result, PFAS can end up in the food we eat and  seep into the land, building up over time in groundwater and soil.
• Contaminated water. PFAS in sludge or pesticide applications can leach into groundwater, which is often used for irrigation on farms. When contaminated water is used on farms, it can further spread PFAS to crops and across agricultural land.

Firefighters are on the frontlines of PFAS exposure:

• PFAS is used in firefighting foam. Firefighting foams, especially Class B foams (such as AFFF), contain high levels of PFAS, which are used for their water and grease repellent properties. Firefighters can be exposed through skin contact, inhalation of vapors, or accidental ingestion. 
• PFAS are in turnout gear: Firefighters’ protective clothing (turnout gear) is often treated with PFAS-based chemicals to make it water and stain resistant. Over time, these chemicals can be absorbed by the wearer or leach into the environment.
• PFAS in burning products: Many consumer products, such as carpets, textiles, and electronics, contain PFAS. During fire, these products can release toxic compounds, exposing firefighters to harmful fumes.

Governments, retailers, and brands are taking action to phase out PFAS in products to prevent contamination in favor of safer alternatives.

States are eliminating PFAS from products. Sixteen states have taken action to eliminate PFAS from consumer products including food packaging, clothing, furniture and cosmetics. These policies reduce exposure at the source and move us toward safer materials. Check out Safer States’ State Action on PFAS in Consumer Products factsheet for state by state overview of progress.

States are protecting drinking water. Eleven states (ME, MA, MI, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, VT, WA, and WI) have standards such as Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for certain PFAS in drinking water. Sixteen states (AK, CA, CO, CT, HI, IL, IN, MD, MN, MS, MT, NM, NC, OH, OR, and WI) have adopted guidance, health advisory, or notification levels for certain PFAS chemicals.

State action on PFAS in drinking water led to federal action. In 2024, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) finalized national drinking water standards for six PFAS chemicals. This was the first time since the 1998 amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act that EPA established enforceable Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for a new chemical. The finalized 2024 drinking water standards are:

• 4 parts per trillion for PFOA
• 4 parts per trillion for PFOS
• A hazard based standard based for a mixture of four PFAS chemicals: PFNA, PFHxS, PFBS, and HFPO-DA (commonly known as Gen X)*
• 10 parts per trillion for PFNA*
• 10 parts per trillion for PFHxS*
• 10 parts per trillion for HFPO-DA*

In 2025 the EPA announced plans to maintain the standards for PFOA and PFOS but rescind the standards for PFNA, PFHxS, PFBS, and HFPO-DA. These changes have been proposed but not yet formalized. Because of the uncertainty, states like Maine have begun codifying the 2024 MCLs in state law to protect communities.

The EPA also finalized a rule to designating two PFAS compounds, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), as “hazardous substances” under the federal program, Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), known as “Superfund.” This designation will make it easier to hold polluters accountable for cleaning up toxic contamination.

At least eight state governments have added PFAS to their state’s hazardous substances regulations, including AK, DE, MA, NJ, NY, OR,  RI, WA, VT. Actions taken by these states vary from guidance to cleanup standards. Washington State added the entire class of PFAS to its hazardous substance policy while other states have targeted specific PFAS compounds including PFOA and PFOS.

State leaders are holding polluters accountable. As of December 2025, 31 US State Attorneys General (AGs) have initiated litigation against the manufacturers of PFAS chemicals for contaminating water supplies and other natural resources as well as false advertising. Resources secured from manufacturers will go toward the billions needed for clean up. Recent settlements by cities and water districts with 3M, Chemours and Dow are vastly insufficient to address the problem. Learn more here.

Retailers and brands are moving away from PFAS. At least 37 brands and retail chains have committed to eliminating or reducing PFAS in food packaging, textiles and/or other products.